Median Architecture

Lendering states the following:

 “Farrokh … believes that the Median state was more centralized than the Achaemenid Empire (p.39); if this were true, we would find some kind of common state architecture all over the Median realms, but so far, archaeologists have not been able to establish which objects are indicative of Median presence. (Usually, all finds below the Achaemenid stratum are called Median, but this does not mean that they resemble each other.)”

Lendering’s views with respect to Median archaeology can be seriously challenged (as can his views on Median militaria and terminology). While he provides a very selective set of references to bolster his view, he ignores the main thrust of established research in the field:

Diakonov, I.M. (1985). Media.  In I., Gershevitch (Ed.), Cambridge History of Iran: Vol.2 The Median and Achaemenean Periods, Great Britain, Cambridge University Press, pp. 36-148.

Diakonov, I.M. (1985b). Elam.  In I., Gershevitch (Ed.), Cambridge History of Iran: Vol.2 The Median and Achaemenean Periods, Great Britain, Cambridge University Press, pp. 1-24.

Frye, R.N. (1984). The History of Ancient Iran. Munich, Germany: C.H. Becksche Verlagsbuchhanndlung. [Read first chapters on Media]

Hansman, J. (1985). Anshan in the Median and Achaemenean periods. In I., Gershevitch (Ed.), Cambridge History of Iran: Vol.2 The Median and Achaemenean Periods, Great Britain, Cambridge University Press, pp. 25-35.

Pyankov, I.V. (1965). Istoriya Persii Ktesiya I Sredneaziatskie Satrapii Achemenidov vo Konste V.B. do N.E. Vestnik Drevnej Istorii, 2, 35-50.  [Excellent analysis of the Median government system in this paper]

Stronach, D. (1985a). Tepe Nush-i-Jan: The Median settlement. In I., Gershevitch (Ed.), Cambridge History of Iran: Vol.2 The Median and Achaemenean Periods, Great Britain, Cambridge University Press, pp. 832-827.

Lendering’s term “common state architecture” appears misplaced. The term is more applicable to the 20^th century Stalinist era of standardized Communist architecture than antiquity. Farrokh made no reference to “common state architecture” in his book. However, it is also interesting that Lendering believes that no consistent architectural style existed in Media. This linear method of analysis indicates a lack of knowledge with respect to the vast work that has already been done (and being done as we speak) in Iran today, especially in Luristan, Ecbatana and Azerbaijan. Shahrokh Razmjou has written on this subject on Iranica Antiqua and commented on the misconceptions of some westerners with respect to Median architecture.

Lendering's statements reveal that he is (selectively?) unaware of the studies in this field of Iranian Studies. It would seem that the main source of Lendering's perspective is derived from the conferences on ancient Persia organized by Heleen Sancisi-Weerdenburg (the first volume of these proceedings was published in 1987, with the 13th volume appearing in 2003). The tone of the conference focused on the "elusive" nature of the evidence for the existence of a Median kingdom, let alone architecture. There is a review in Bryn Maer:

http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/bmcr/2004/2004-11-11.html

The Bryn Maer review however selectively quotes researchers such as Curtis in a way that portrays them as believing that no Median architecture exists. This is actually untrue as will be seen shortly below.

Any examination of their extensive works will reveal that this is not the case. In any event, the impact of the Sancisi-Weerdenburg publications has not been impressive, simply because the interesting revisionist views have yet to find widespread acceptance in the field of Iranian Studies: The 200 edition of The Encyclopedia Americana (Scholastic Library Publishing) printed 2 years after the Sancisi-Weerdenburg notes the following:

"Median architecture and pottery of the 7th and 6th centuries has
been obtained in excavations at Godin Tepe (in Kurdistan) and Tepe Nush-i Jan ..."
Encyclopedia Americana, 2005, p.609

It would be impractical to produce the entire text here, however it is clear that the Sancisi-Weerdenburg initiative, though very interesting, is not generally supported.
&nb sp;
It is almost certain that Lendering has not con sulted works such as those by Boucharlat and Razmjou. Had the consultation been made, Lendering may have been more restrained with respect to producing spectacular statements regarding Median architecture. Readers (and Lendering) are encouraged to consult:

Boucharlat, R. & Razmjou, S. (2005). In Search of the Lost Median Art. Iranica Antiqua, Volume 28, 271-314

Boucharlat and Razmjou's main points may be summarized as such below:

1) There are certain traits of Median form that may be traced to the Ziwiye treasures, Urartu and nomadic regions which the authors note cannot be disputed ("incontestable").

2) When one discusses the Median realm the role of other non-Mede Iranian peoples in the formation of Median architecture and arts must be considered, especially before the era of Persian domination.

3) Median arts can be distinguished in two parts: (a) "the pure and original Media art" and (b) the realms to the north and west of the Medes which "mixed with Mesopotamian and Urartian elements".

But Razmjou and Boucharlat are but two of a series of scholars on the subject. Lendering also fails to acknowledge the works of Iranian archaeologists and researchers. Note the text below:

The Book of Iran: The History of Iranian Art
By: H. Ayyatollahi, A. Ayat Allahi, S. HaghshenC4s, (translated by Shermin Haghshenas)
Published by: Alhoda UK, 2003

Ayyatollahi, Ayat Allahi and Haghshenas note that:

"Until 1346 there was little information regarding Median art. This information mainly consists of minor details concerning the red, grey and especially the ochre colored plain pottery of the era and a number of tombs carved into the rocky mountain. In the only drawing discovered in the palace of Sargon, the Median towns and cities are portrayed as complexes of multistory buildings. After the year 1346 traces of great Median architecture, bearing information regarding Achaemenid architecture were discovered in excavations performed in two high archaeological sites, Tepe Nush e Jan and Godin Tepe. At the top of Nush e Jan Hill, situated 37 meters above ground level, a selection of buildings in relatively good condition have been discovered."
Ayyatollahi, Ayat Allahi & Haghshenas, 2003, p.70-71.

More citations may be produced such as Professor John Curtis:

"As there are also columned halls at Godin Tepe these may be a distinctive feature of Median architecture…(p.37)…"
Curtis, J. (2000). Ancient Persia. Published by British Museum Press, p.37.

Or

Professors Francis D. K. Ching, Frank Ching, Mark Jarzombek, and Vikramaditya Prakash who noted in 2007 that:

"The general concept of a columnar hall dates to early Median architecture.
An 8th century BCE palace-citadel in Gobin Tepe had one with 30 columns"
Ching, F. D. K., Ching, F., Jarzombek, M., Prakash, V. (2007). A Global History of Architecture. Published by J. Wiley & Sons, p.114

Lendering engages in three processes with respect to Median architecture:

1) Dismissing publicat ions by Iranian scholars (including those translated to English)
2) Dismissing Western publications (like Iranica Antiqua, etc.) that contradict his hypothesis
3) Abandoning balanced academic discourse – one that requires entertaining the various sides of an issue (see 1 and 2).

There is however a more fundamental concern: Lendering's alleged knowledge of archaeological and geographic sites in Iran. This was raised earlier in the introductory notes and especially item 1 (The case of Gotarzes II) of this discussion. Recall in the discussion in item (1) (The case of Gotarzes II) where Lendering incorrectly states "The relief of Gotarzes II at Behistun does not stand today" – this is completely false. Simply put, Lendering's observations on Iranian archaeology (i.e. Median architecture) are unreliable, meaning that his20assertions and various postings on the subject need to be thoroughly re-checked by third-party sources.

Median architecture is characterised by both consistency and regional diversity. The Ziwiye style of the arts was not only consistent in western and north western Iran but also influenced the ancient Ukraine through those Scythians who returned to the steppes after the revival of Median political power. The art of Ziwiye however was itself the result of a symbiosis with the steppe arts as well. The Ziwiye style (there are convincing arguments that this originated in Luristan) was one of the primary contributing factors to the Persepolis style of the Achaemenids. For a brief synopsis of the symbiosis peculiar to the Persepolis style consult:

Boucharlat R. (1990). Ambassade a Persepolis. Notre Histoire: La Memoire Religieuse de L’humanite, 80, pp.44-47.

Median architecture and arts also bear a distinct Marlik tradition (itself influenced by Assyrian motifs; i.e. winged bulls, griffins, Tree of Life, etc.). The Marlik tradition was in fact consistent  in western, northern and central Iran.  This being said, regional variation would occur depending on geography and proximity to other cultural zones (e.g. Urartu/Armenia).   

Architecture is rarely as monolithic in the sense of “state architecture”. Median architecture does also display synergy with other cultures outside of the Iranian plateau. Lendering for example is apparently unaware of the relationship between the ancient artistic and architectural styles of Ararat (ancient kingdom in Armenia) and Median Iran and how these helped to formulate a consistent architectural style prior to the Achaemenids:

Chahin, M. (1975). Ararat: The Ancient Kingdom of Armenia. History Today, June, pp.418-427.

Space does not permit a thorough discussion of Median architecture. For example, the present Kurdish area of Iraqi Kurdistan already had a powerful archaeological substratum of Hurrian (or Hurrianized) culture, prior to the Mede arrivals.

But far more interesting is Lendering’s lack of knowledge of the ancient basis of Mede architecture. Rib vaulting is attributed to the Medes, and the techniques for this were bought by a Median architect to the Assyrian building now known as Tell Jemmeh. These same techniques were used in Teppe Nush e Jan as well as other sites of Median origin. These were built in the Median era prior to the Achaemenids. For a full discussion of Near Eastern architecture with respect to vaults/arches (including Median and Assyrian architecture) consult:

Van Beek, G. V. (1987). Arches and vaults in the ancient Near East. Scientific American, July, pp.78-85.

Lendering’s statements with respect to Median architecture are simplistic if not misinformed in that he is either unwilling to acknowledge the vast literature on the subject or is unaware of these.